In order for female rowers to qualify for the light weight division, their body mass must not exceed 59kg and the boat average must not exceed 57kg in addition to being required to weigh in no less than 1 hour and no more than 2 hours prior to each race during a regatta (study 6). In spite of the weight restrictions which categorize light weight rowing, the key determinant to success in this sport still remains in the muscle mass acquired by the female athletes (study 6). The association of higher muscle mass coupled with heightened performance implies that competitive lightweight female rowers participate in nutritional strategies which promote decreases in excess fat mass while seeking to maintain lean body mass levels (study 6).
Lightweight rowers aim for 8% reductions in body mass between the preseason and competition seasons (study 6). Inferences can thus be deduced that these individuals are not actually “lightweights” to begin with and therefore support the need for structured nutritional programming to reducing unneeded excess body fat and increased muscle retention. Female participants in lightweight rowing self-reported using the following practices: deliberate increases in training volume, food deprivation, energy restriction, active and passive sweat production and fluid restriction, skipping meals, fasting, carbohydrate consumption restriction, low residue and low sodium intake and finally the use of laxatives (study 6).
Practicing any of the aforementioned for acute weight loss to make weight can result in decreases in rowing performance even when there is a recovery window between the competition and the weigh-in, the severity of these impacts is highly dependent on the type, duration and multiple arrays of factors from employing the cutting methods listed above. Areas of concern for nutritional purposes should focus on attention of fluid and sodium intake and carbohydrate consumption.
Fluid intake and restrictions can have deleterious effects on performance both from a psychological and physiological standpoint, therefore dehydration should be limited to only the remaining 24 hours prior to weigh-ins and should not exceed 2% of an individual’s body mass (study 6). Hydration status is primarily influenced by both sodium concentration and total volume of fluids ingested, with a total drinking volume consumption of 150-220% of the existing fluids deficit in order to provide an acute restoration of fluid balance within the timeframe of 6 hours (study 6). This higher volume is not entirely practical, therefore guidelines had been shifted to recommend 100% of the fluid deficit with the caveat of sufficient sodium being co-administered to fully restore plasma volume levels within 90 minutes (study 6). Timing for rehydration should strongly be considered in order to minimize gastrointestinal distress but also to maximize fluid balance and plasma volume (study 6). Higher intake of fluids should be consumed initially for this same time sensitive requirement given the short time period competitors have between weigh-in and the competition.
Co-administration of both fluids and sodium in the range of 50-60 mmol/L is recommended for optimal rehydration, any less will only serve to contribute to urinary output, further delaying the fluid balance restoration (study 6). Sodium Bicarbonate supplementation is a viable option for rowers as it will satisfy acid base balance status and to obtain sufficient required sodium levels (study 6). Timeline for restoration can be greatly reduced if the levels of hypohydration are below 2%, then a 2 hour window is all that is needed to increase plasma volume even though whole body net fluid balance may still be in a negative deficit (study 6).
Finally carbohydrate strategies should be implemented by those female participants whom participate in severe energy deprivation and carbohydrate restriction. Much like sodium and fluid intake falling short of current guidelines, current guidelines are not consistent and may negatively compromise performance of athletes (study 6). Optimal intakes of approximately 1.2g/kg/h will provide maximal muscle glycogen restoration (study 6). Consumption of carbohydrates prior to exercise show an ergogenic effect as evidenced in the research, however higher intakes of carbohydrates will not yield linear increases in terms of endurance performance due to the rate limiting factor of glucose absorption which falls to 1.2g/ min.
Strategizing optimum nutrition before, intra and post competition
Competitive rowers perform rigorous training frequencies of training, sometimes exceeding 14 sessions per week with varying focuses of the training centered around aerobic and anaerobic capacity development, strength and endurance output and lactate tolerance (study 8). Rough estimations for female competitor’s average approximately 4,258kcals per day (study 8). The determinants for overall energy needs, carbohydrate, protein and fat requirements are multi-factorial and revolve around the female athletes yearly training plan, frequency and duration of training sessions, gastric tolerance and individual food tolerances (study 8). The distribution and timing of nutrients should be directly related to the time of training, weigh-ins and competition.
Carbohydrate consumption plays a critical role in the performance of rowers to prevent training in a low glycogen state, however, due to the high frequency demand of training for elite rowers which can at times be 3 varying sessions throughout the day at different levels of intensity, there will be certain sessions where the athlete will be training in a reduced glycogen state (study 8). Requirements for rowers fall between 6g to 12g/kg BM/d in order to sufficiently support moderate to high intensity energy demands (study 8). Current recommendations for rowers call for 1.2g/kg ingested immediately within 60 minutes post training to ensure glycogen restoration, especially when time is limited between training sessions (study 8).
Recommendations for glycogen replenishment may be higher pending the intensity of the training session. As mentioned in previous sections, muscle retention is a critical aspect for optimizing performance for female athletes participating in acute weight loss programming methods. As such, resistance training programming is integral to this process and typically implemented at a frequency of 2 to 3 times per week pending where the rower falls in terms of her yearly training plan. In order to allow for proper recovery from heavy resistance training and for the athlete to remain in a positive protein balance, protein should be consumed at a dose of 0.4g/kg per meal in order to elicit a positive effect on muscle protein synthesis levels (study 8). Timing for this nutrient calls for 0.4g/kg of a high biologically active protein or animal based protein source or even 3g of supplemental leucine following training sessions or competition (study 8.)
Simultaneous consumption of both the aforementioned dosing of carbohydrates and above listed recommendations for consuming protein post training have been demonstrated to provide a synergistic type of effect in increasing muscle protein synthesis levels and glycogen re-synthesis and even achieving and maintaining energy demands to support lean body mass levels (study 8).
The final macronutrient to cover with regards to recommended intakes for female rowers is fat intake. While there exist no clear cut recommendations for elite female lightweight rowers with regards to optimal fat intakes, it is all once again based off of goals for the individual’s yearly training plan coupled with meticulous consideration so as not to overindulge in this macronutrient to not displace carbohydrate and protein consumption (study 8.).
Displacement of protein and carbohydrates via high fat consumption could have negative repercussions in terms of glycogen replenishment and optimal muscle protein synthesis levels to allow for tissue repair (study 8). It is recommended that in general athletes consume 30% of their daily normal caloric intake from fat (study 9). When in an energy deficit and athletes are seeking to reduce fat mass, intake ranges of 0.5 to 1g/kg/d which translates to approximately 20% of total caloric intake from fat, have been recommended (study 9). At this time no greater ergogenic benefits have been noted from athletes utilizing higher fat diets and have rather shown consistent gastrointestinal issues from higher fat consumption (study 9).
Incidence of female athlete triad’
Historically, the number of females participating in sports has been relatively modest as recorded in the year 1971, but by 2010 this number has drastically grown to entail are larger total population. The American College of Sports Medicine’s Task Force on Women’s issues created the term known as the Female Athlete Triad outlining three components which categorize it. Amenorrhea of the temporary loss of menstruation, eating disorders and reduced energy availability and finally osteoporosis were requisite conditions, all of which were required to be present for the diagnosis of the Female Athlete Triad condition (study1).
It has been observed that females participating in sports subject to subjective judging and or endurance sports, especially, those which emphasize a greater amount of conditioning or leanness and overall lower body mass are at an increased risk of developing this condition. While not exclusive to these types of activities, it is essential to note that any woman participating in athletic endeavors, including non-athletes can be at risk of developing the condition (study 1). In order for female lightweight rowers to qualify for the lightweight division, they must not exceed 59kg as dictated by the International Rowing Federation, and the average crew weight must not be more than 57kg (study 7). The weight restrictions imposed on female athletes who are aiming to participate in this class exposes them to both acute and chronic dieting efforts which have the propensity to cause symptoms of the condition and even increase the likelihood of bone stress injuries as a result of menstrual dysfunction and lost bone mineral density (study 7). Findings from research in this area have determined that most rowers are at a higher risk for pathogenic weight control strategies, symptoms of disordered eating and more specifically binge eating were highly common among active competitive rowers (study 7).
Supplementation to promote high performance and reduce incidence of the female athlete triad
As mentioned in the section on incidence of the Female Athlete Triad, both the combination of sufficient nutrition and weight bearing exercise are viable and important modalities for the treatment and prevention of Female Athlete Triad (Matzkin, Curry, & Whitlock, 2015). Supplementation with vitamin D and calcium supplements may provide additional desirable outcomes in this particular case of reducing this condition (Matzkin, Curry, & Whitlock, 2015). The synergistic pairing of this vitamin and mineral may help in reducing the risk for bone fractures, a major concern for those with osteoporosis, or all three conditions which make up the Female Athlete Triad (Rizzoli, 2018). Calcium’s absorption is actually promoted by vitamin D, thus consuming both will help promote regular bone mineralization, bone growth and bone remodeling (Rizzoli, 2018). Compromised iron metabolism in rowers, either as a result of gastrointestinal issues, dietary deficiencies, hemolysis or sweat and urine loses may also warrant iron supplementation (study 8.) Higher iron availability may stimulate muscle protein synthesis levels and enhance hepcidin levels in the body contributing to overall training quality and functional increases in both strength and overall performance (study 8).
Interest in improving performance in competition and training via nutritional and supplementation methods is a growing area of interest, more specifically the use of pre-workout supplements. Dietary supplements in this specific category make performance enhancing claims with regard to the consumption of ergogenic blends of ingredients, as many possess synergistic effects which result in enhanced mental focus, heightened reaction time and increased power output, all attributes which would highly benefit low weight rowers (Spradley, Crowley, Tai, Kendall, Fukuda, Esposito, Moon, & Moon, 2012). Research in this area supports the claims of pre-workout supplements in that they function to significantly improve focus, alertness, and perceived feelings of energy, providing users with overall both reduced feelings of fatigue and actual fatigue and increased muscular endurance and reaction times (Spradley et al., 2012). Consumption of supplements which contain blends of ingredients such as caffeine, B-vitamins such as B-6 and B-12, branched chain amino acids, beta alanine, citrulline malate, or arginine type supplements may have synergistic types of effects which translate to improve muscular endurance, reaction times and both aerobic and anaerobic capacity (Spradley et al., 2012). Caffeine supplementation may be well warranted for those female participants who have subjected themselves to carbohydrate restrictive diets and have suffered endogenous carbohydrate availability, in order to maintain performance (study 6). Beta Alanine supplementation in the 1.6-6.4g/d dose for >4 weeks yielded increases in muscle carnosine concentrations contributing to intracellular pH regulation and is considered likely to benefit rowing performance in the 2000 meter range (study 8).
Supplementation with chokeberry has also been investigated for its positive effects on inflammatory markers, antioxidant plasma activity and even the metabolism of iron in rowers (study 4). Physically demanding endeavors such as hose encountered during exhaustive rowing result in various unfavorable physiological changes which reduce osmotic resistance of erythrocytes (study 4). This subsequent change in erythrocytes can cause shifts in prooxidant levels, hypoglycemia, hyperthermia, metabolic acidosis and hemoconcentration. The heightened hemolysis increases free iron level the resulting process causes free radical mediated process and an enhanced inflammatory response (study 4). Flavonoids, such as those found in polyphenol rich chokeberry juice, have strong associations with seizing iron and modulating inflammatory processes regulated by immune components (study 4). Other antioxidant rich supplements such as tart cherry concentrate exist as a viable option for promoting recovery to endurance athletes via its pro anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant levels (study 8).
The use of sodium bicarbonate has also been supported for use in lightweight rowing for its positive effects on buffering lactic acid and hydrogen ions, both metabolic byproducts formed during high intensity bouts of exercise (study 5). Supplemental use of sodium bicarbonate may in fact have a major practical application for lightweight female rowers as there is typically participants in this athletic endeavor are subject to weigh in’s. It has been observed that these same female participants often times may be forced to engage in efforts to rapidly reduce overall body mass prior to a competition (study 5). Utilizing sodium bicarbonate with aggressive nutritional strategies and fluid intake may be highly beneficial in the reduced window of time following weigh in’s and the competition itself (study5). Appropriate energy intake coupled with appropriate consumption of fluids and supplemental sodium bicarbonate may help with recovery and optimizing performance going into competition as many athletes often restrict sodium levels due to “healthier” food options and naturally low sodium food selections. Increased sodium intake, such as with bicarbonate supplementation, will contribute in maintaining sodium concentrations and plasma osmolality (study 6). These contributions promote optimal retention of increased fluid intakes ingested through increased aldosterone concentrations and plasma renin concentrations (study 6).
Other supplements of interest to rowers include beetroot juice, HMB, and the highly researched creatine. Beetroot juice supplementation was shown to increase time trials in elite rowers in the 500-m and 2,000-m times. The benefits of beetroot are derived from its effects on increased plasma nitrates and nitrites and nitric oxide levels and bioavailability (study 8.) HMB is a metabolite of the branch chain amino acid leucine which both stimulates muscle protein synthesis levels but also attenuates muscle protein breakdown, an area of concern for most female rowers who typically participate in acute methods for weight loss while seeking to maintain lean body mass levels for optimal performance (study 8). Creatine has been demonstrated to effectively increase endurance and anaerobic endurance in addition to positively effecting lean body mass levels among elite rowers (study 8). Supplementation wen used long term as part of a rowers nutritional strategies has been shown to be an effective method for heightened performance and strength gains (study 8).
Disclaimer
All programs and articles provided are intellectual property of James Shmagranoff. No copies or redistribution of these is allowed without express permission from James Shmagranoff. James Shmagranoff is not a doctor and nothing contained within this article is to be taken as medical advice. Always follow the directions of your medical practitioner.
Resources
Matzkin, E., Curry, E.J., Whitlock, K. (2015). Female athlete triad: Past, present, and Future. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 23(7), 424-432. doi:10.5435/JAAOS-D-14-00168
Rizzoli, R. (2018). Prevention of osteoporosis and fragility fractures. Pocket Reference to Osteoporosis, 31-42. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-26757-9_4
Spradley, B.D., Crowley, K.R., Tai, C., Kendall, K.L., Fukuda, D.H., Esposito, E.N., Moon, S.E., & Moon, J.R. (2012). Ingesting a pre-workout supplement containing caffeine, b-vitamins, amino acids, creatine, and beta-alanine before exercise delays fatigue while improving reaction time and muscular endurance. Nutrition & Metabolism, 9(28), 1-9. Retrieved from https://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-7075-9-28
Effect of supplementation with chokeberry juice on the inflammatory status and markers of iron metabolism in rowers
Body mass management of lightweight rowers: nutritional strategies and performance implications
Influence of sodium bicarbonate on performance and hydration in lightweight rowing
Bone mineral density, rib pain and other features of the female athlete triad in elite lightweight rowers
Nutrition and Supplements for Elite Open-Weight Rowing
ISSN Exercise & Sports Nutrition review: research & recommendations
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